Psychiatric Imperialism: The Medicalisation of Modern Living
Introduction
The institution of psychiatry grew up in the 19th century
during the emergence and consolidation of industrial capitalism. Its function
was to deal with abnormal and bizarre behaviour which, without breaking the law,
did not comply with the demands of the new social and economic order. Its
association with medicine concealed this political function of social control by
endowing it with the objectivity and neutrality of science. The medical model of
mental disorder has served ever since to obscure the social processes that
produce and define deviance by locating problems in individual biology. This
obsfucation lends itself to the perpetuation of the established order by
side-stepping the challenge that is implicit in deviant behaviour and thereby
undermining a source of criticism and opposition. During the 20th century, a
fierce attack on psychiatry has condemned this misleading medical
characterisation of the problems of living and the repressive measures that
masquerade as psychiatric treatment. However, at the same time more
sophisticated technology has enabled the psychiatric profession not only to
weather the storm, but to strengthen its claim to the jurisdiction of 'mental
illness.' Opportunities for social control and the suppression of dissent in the
guise of psychiatry have increased.
In some respects psychiatry has never been as confident and
respectable as it is at present. In the 1950s and 1960s a pharmacological
revolution produced an array of drugs for use in disorders such as
schizophrenia, depression and anxiety which enabled psychiatry to move closer to
the paradigm of physical medicine of administering specific cures for specific
conditions. Starting in this period also, psychiatric care relocated physically
away from the discredited asylums and into general hospitals, in closer
proximity to the rest of the medical community. This move embodied the attempts
of the psychiatric profession to disentangle itself from the stigma of caring
for the chronically insane and instead to forge a role curing the acutely
disturbed. Community care is the concession to the chronic and recurrent nature
of psychiatric conditions.
Similarly, the endeavour to locate the biological origins of
mental illness has been revitalised by the introduction of new technology for
studying the brain and by the development of molecular genetics and the human
genome project. Despite a disappointing lack of consistent results, the quantity
of resources devoted to this research has, in itself, leant the medical model of
mental illness further credibility.
However, the 20th century has also produced an influential
critique of psychiatry articulated by academics and some rebel psychiatrists
(famously, R.D. Laing, Thomas Szasz & David Cooper). Sociological theories
of deviance, medicalisation and the organisation of professions helped to expose
the political functions and processes involved in the institution of psychiatry.
The paternalism of psychiatry was attacked and medical treatment was accused of
being more oppressive than legal sanctions or punishment.
These ideas were expressed in concrete form in the activities
of protest movements, patient advocacy groups and experiments in alternative
care. In the early 1970s in the Netherlands and the United States, where protest
movements were particularly strong, there were demonstrations against the use of
electro convulsive therapy (ECT), university lectures were disrupted and some
prominent biological psychiatrists had to have police protection. There were
famous attempts to create therapeutic communities which renounced staff patient
distinctions and hierarchies (such as R.D. Laing's Kingsley Hall and David
Cooper's Ward 21in the United Kingdom) and in Italy a politically conscious
democratic psychiatry movement instituted mental health care reforms. The
patient advocacy movement, which took inspiration from civil rights
organisations, was another important development. Although the activism has
diminished, patient or survivor groups remain strong and individuals and groups
of professionals continue to promote alternative approaches to the problems of
the so-called mentally ill . The 'antipsychiatry' movement also had a
significant impact on social policy resulting in increasing restrictions on
involuntary confinement and treatment and a diminishing use of physical
techniques such as psychosurgery and ECT.
However, recent developments in the definition and management
of two major psychiatric conditions, depression and schizophrenia, illustrate
that the social influence and formal powers of institutional psychiatry may now
be expanding. The criticism that was first expressed over three decades ago may
therefore be more relevant than ever.
Depression: medicalising discontent
The Defeat Depression Campaign
(DDC), launched in 1992 was
organised by the Royal College of Psychiatrists in association with the Royal
College of General Practitioners with funding from the pharmaceutical industry.
The literature of this campaign suggests that around 10% of the population
suffer from a depressive disorder at any one time, a third will suffer at some
time during their lives and antidepressant drugs are recommended for all those
with moderate to severe symptoms. These claims seem to suggest that a large
proportion of human unhappiness is biologically based and can be similarly
corrected. The publicity surrounding the new antidepressant fluoxetine (prozac)
has become only slightly more extreme with claims that it has personality
altering and general life enhancing properties.
A recent collection of interviews with prominent
psychopharmacologists who were involved with the discovery and introduction of
modern psychiatric drugs provides an interesting historical backdrop to the DDC.
In psychiatric hospital practise in the 1950s depression was a relatively rare
disorder and there was no concept of a specifically antidepressant drug as
opposed to a general stimulant. When antidepressant action of certain compounds
was first proposed drug companies were initially reluctant to develop and launch
such drugs. In an unconscious alliance of interests, influential psychiatrists
developed and popularised the view of depression as a common biologically based
disorder, amenable to drug treatment and as yet frequently unrecognised. This
concept had the dual benefits of vastly expanding the market for psychiatric
drugs and extending the boundaries of psychiatry outside the asylum. Since this
time the psychiatric profession and the drug industry have continued to try and
inculcate this idea into the consciousness of both the general public and other
doctors. The DDC is the latest offensive.
Numerous biochemical mechanisms responsible for depressive
illness have been proposed implicating a variety of biochemical and hormonal
mechanisms, partly determined by fashion. The evidence for all these theories
has been inconsistent and the consensus about the efficacy of antidepressant
drugs remains the strongest support for the thesis that depression is a
physiological condition. Perusing the psychiatric literature indicates that this
consensus developed in the mid 1970s based on evidence from randomised
controlled trials of the original and still widely used antidepressants, the
tricyclics. However, early reviews of this evidence portray an ambiguous
situation with a large proportion of trials failing to find a positive effect.
In addition, more recently some researchers have suggested that antidepressants
are not specifically active against depression but merely exert a placebo effect
in a receptive condition. They appear to perform better than an inert placebo
because their side effects increase their suggestive power and may admit bias
into the assessment procedure by enabling investigators to guess whether
patients are on the active drug or the placebo. A recent meta-analysis of
placebo controlled trials of prozac found that the likelihood of recovery was
indeed associated with experiencing side effects . A review of seven studies
which used an active substance as a placebo to mimic antidepressant side effects
found that only one showed the drug to be superior.
Variation in mood is a characteristically human way of
responding to circumstances but unhappiness has become taboo in the late 20th
century, perhaps because it undermines the image that society wishes to project.
Medicalisation diminishes the legitimacy of grief and discontent and therefore
reduces the repertoire of acceptable human responses to events and denies people
the opportunity to indulge their feelings. At the same time it diverts attention
away from the political and environmental factors that can make modern life so
difficult and distressing. It may be no co-incidence that the concept of
depression has reached its present peak of popularity in western societies
reeling from two decades of economic events and political policies which have
been blamed for increased unemployment and marginalisation of a substantial
section of the population.
However, it is also important to acknowledge that people have
different propensities to experience intense moods and that, for those at the
extremes of this spectrum, such as those with manic depressive disorder, life
can be very difficult. Prophylactic medication is promoted by psychiatrists for
long-term use in this condition primarily in the form of lithium. However, in a
similar way to antidepressants, claims of the efficacy of lithium seem to have
been based on insubstantial evidence and follow up studies of people with manic
depression do not indicate that it has improved the outlook of the condition. It
is possible therefore that prophylactic drug treatment constitutes a false hope
held out to people who feel desperate, by a profession that feels helpless. But
it may only further undermine the self assurance of people who are already
vulnerable. Instead of aspiring to complete cure, natural remission of episodes
should be encouraged by providing care and security, and attempts should be made
to enhance people's confidence in their own ability to manage or survive their
condition.
Schizophrenia: disguising social control
The enormous investment in the investigation of the
biological basis of schizophrenia has produced no conclusive information.
Decades of increasingly sophisticated technological research has revealed a
possible weak genetic predisposition, often much exaggerated by psychiatric
commentators who ignore the shortcomings of the main studies . Molecular genetic
studies have publicised initial findings implicating several different genes
which then transpired to be due to chance when attempts at replication failed.
The most recent pan European study boldly concludes that the genetic
associations revealed are involved in the pathogenesis of the disorder. However,
the gene implicated is common in the general population, it is only slightly
more common in people diagnosed with schizophrenia and the similarity of the
comparison group in this study was ensured only for ethnicity and not for other
factors. As regards brain function and anatomy, the only consistent finding is
the larger size of the lateral ventricle, one of the brain cavities, in people
with schizophrenia. Again there is a substantial overlap with the 'normal'
population and most studies have been conducted on people with long histories of
drug treatment. However, the possibility that drugs may be responsible for
causing the brain abnormalities observed has received little attention in the
psychiatric literature .
Drugs variously termed 'major
tranquillisers,' 'neuroleptics'
or 'antipsychotics' form the mainstay of psychiatric treatment for
schizophrenia. They have been claimed to have specific action against psychotic
symptoms such as delusions and hallucinations, but critics suggest that they act
in a much cruder way by producing a chemical lobotomy or straight jacket which
inhibits all creative thought processes . Psychiatry applauds the role of these
drugs in emptying the asylums but an alternative perspective suggests that they
merely helped to replace expensive custodial care with long-term drug-induced
control.
A consequence of the move towards community care is that
public and political anxiety has replaced the concern for patients rights with
concern for protection of the community and psychiatric treatment has become the
panacea for this complex social problem. In response to a few highly publicised
cases of violent or dangerous acts by former psychiatric patients, amendments
were made to the Mental Health Act (1983) which came into force in April 1996
and which introduce a power of 'supervised discharge.' This power enables
psychiatric personnel to have access to the patient if deemed necessary and to
enforce attendance at psychiatric facilities. It does not confer the right to
enforce medical treatment but it does require that an assessment for admission
to hospital be conducted if the patient is uncompliant with aftercare
arrangements such as refusing medication. The justification for this legislation
is the assumption that medical treatment can cure disturbance and prevent
relapse. However the evidence indicates that a substantial proportion of people
with a psychotic episode fail to respond to medication at all, a further
significant proportion relapse despite taking long-term medication (in clinical
trials the relapse rates on medication is around 30%) and, like other people,
they may behave antisocially when they are not actively psychotic.
The social control element of the changes to the Mental
Health Act is only thinly veiled and they have been strongly opposed by civil
and patients rights groups. Their significance lies in the introduction of a new
precedent of control over people after discharge from hospital. The use of the
former 1983 Mental Health Act for these purposes was successfully challenged in
the courts in the 1980s. The exact form of the new provisions when implemented
is uncertain and is likely to vary according to the predisposition of local
professionals. Although there is much unease among psychiatrists about
shouldering increased responsibility for the actions of people labelled mentally
ill, many in the profession have called for stronger powers to enforce medical
treatment in the community.
The medical model of mental illness has facilitated the move
towards greater restriction by cloaking it under the mantle of treatment. This
process of medicalisation of deviant behaviour conceals complex political issues
about the tolerance of diversity, the control of disruptive behaviour and the
management of dependency. It enables a society that professes liberal values and
individualism to impose and reinforce conformity. It disguises the economics of
a system in which human labour is valued only for the profit it can generate,
marginalising all those who are not fit or not willing to be so exploited.
Characterisation of schizophrenia as a physically based
disease of the brain also forecloses any debate about the meaning of the
experiences and actions associated with it. Attempts to render schizophrenic
symptoms intelligible and to understand their communicative value help both to
illuminate ordinary experience and to increase empathy for people with this
condition. Other interesting findings point to the association of schizophrenia
with features of social structure. Nothing resembling schizophrenia was
described prior to the early 19th century, suggesting an association with the
emergence of industrial capitalism. In modern societies schizophrenia is more
frequently diagnosed in urban centres, among people of lower social class and in
certain immigrant groups when compared to their country of origin, particularly
second generation afro-Caribbean people in the UK. Research in the third world
has shown that people with schizophrenia have a better prognosis with a lower
chance of relapse and functional decline than their counterparts in the
developed world . It appears therefore that social conditions play a part in
determining the expression of schizophrenic symptoms and so schizophrenia may be
regarded as a mirror on the deficiencies of the current social structure.
Tolerance of the diversity of human lives and a respect for
the autonomy of all must be the foundation of a progressive alternative
approach. Enhancing people's control over their lives means providing genuine
choices and opportunities for people of all different propensities. It means
creating a society where there are niches available that allow a diversity of
lifestyles. It involves accepting that some people may chose to lead lives that
appear bizarre or impoverished. Although some people with schizophrenia will
find drug treatment useful, psychiatrists frequent complaints about non
compliance illustrate that many chose not to take medication. Similarly, some
people with chronic mental illness gravitate away from the structured,
rehabilitating environment of the mental health services to homeless hostels and
to the streets. It is commonplace to blame the underfunding of community care
for this phenomena but research has found that most of the homeless
psychiatrically ill had not come straight from closing hospitals but had been
settled in adequate community accommodation before drifting away . An
alternative explanation might be that the long-term mentally ill prefer the
undemanding nature of the homeless situation to the intrusive demands of family,
community and mental health services.
The management of disruptive and dangerous behaviour is a
problem for every society. Involuntary confinement and treatment continue to be
a major area of contention with opposition emphasising the need to respect
people's autonomy and opposing the imposition of a relative set of values about
what is normal and sane. It is argued that it should be possible to deal with
behaviour that is genuinely harming or harassing other people using normal legal
sanctions. It is an area which requires further and wider consideration.
Whatever solution is adopted, it must be developed openly and
democratically, with proper provision for representation and public scrutiny, so
that measures taken can not be subverted to serve the ends of certain groups
above others.
Conclusion
Despite the political and professional retrenchment of recent
years, there are many developments which presage the ultimate transformation of
the psychiatric system. The burgeoning patients rights movement and the
anti-psychiatry critique are some of these. Rejection of paternalism is also
embodied in the increasingly important role of consumers in medicine in general
and the demand for justification of treatments and involvement in decision
making. The medical profession is also placing more emphasis on objective
evidence about the effectiveness of procedures and showing less inclination to
support the principle of clinical freedom. Many individual psychiatrists are
aware of the political conflicts that beset their practice and try to address
these thoughtfully and with respect for their patients and philosophical debate,
which inevitable touches on political issues, is flourishing within the
profession at present. It is unlikely however that psychiatry will be radically
transformed without profound social and political change. The control of
deviance and the enforcement of conformity are too central to the smooth
functioning of the divisive and exploitative social system in which we live.
Reprinted from Soundings, issue 6, summer 1997, published by Lawrence and Wishart, London.
I am a Senior Lecturer in Psychiatry at University College London, department of Psychiatry and Behavioural Science. I have published several critical reviews of psychiatric drug treatments, as well as papers on the history of psychiatry. I am a founder member and co chair person of the Critical Psychiatry Network (web site: www.critpsynet.freeuk.com). This is a network of psychiatrists in the UK who challenge some of the orthodox thinking in psychiatry, especially the emphasis on the medical model of psychiatric disorder, and the link between psychiatry and coercion.
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